Life on the frontier Essays - Guggenheim Fellows, Borders, Frontier

Billington's point of view several lines in to America's Frontier Heritage begins with a philosophical question, he poses the question, ?Do they consider their fellow men as equals, or as inferiors and superiors?....? By they Billington is referring to America and in this case specifically to the people of the time he is discussing, people of the frontier in the aforementioned 19th and early 20th century. This quote would be the one posed to I, the reader, throughout not only his book but Limerick's as well. Billington begins by explaining the foundation on which the country was built on, the thought of ?equality? and ?individualism.? These two words as many know are core virtues America was built on along with free enterprise, the pursuit of happiness and essentially the right to earn as much as you work for. All tremendous things that this country since day one has thrived on but the theme Billington implies throughout is that these products of life came without obstacles to most i f not all. He states ?Nowhere could a stake in society be more easily obtained,? interesting, because as most are aware this ?frontier? time was the heart of the most extreme segregation and lack of acceptance unless you were of a specific demographic. Reading along further in the book Billington begins to narrow in on what his essential, main point was to begin with. Which seems to be America is a land for all individuals to come to and prosper without government interference. I realized this upon Billington stating ?....where superabundant opportunity allowed each to rise or fall to his proper level as long as governments did not meddle.? At first Billington seems to be taking the naive route of that America since day one has been a perfect melting pot for all colors and types of people to thrive without resistance much of this sense came from his frequent claims of everyone being ?neighborly? and getting along in the communities. Upon finishing reading it became more obvious this was not his intention at all. His intention was to describe America as a land where government will not interfere which was unheard of to nearly all from every corner of the globe. That it is great here because if you came to America you would have a ch ance, without a lord taking your income for a ?tax,? or a ruler telling you where to live and for this I entirely agree. The Legacy of Conquest brings up an entirely different perspective then Americas Frontier Heritage. Limerick narrates the other side of the story, one would probably say ?uglier? side. She discusses the lesser known hardships endured by the people who at the time frankly just were not as relevant as the majority. The frontier of the West as she describes was yes a diverse place where many could move to to make a living and settlement but if you were not of the majority you would almost definitly encounter resistance. The reputation of the West was that of where minorities: Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, Certain Europeans etc. could go to live, ?free? of the South's and Northeast's individual prejudices. This was quite a mirage that most did not see, notice, or at the time frankly care about. She uses the example of Oregon in 1857. Oregon was much opposed to slavery which of course sounded good to the Freedmen but, as Limerick state ?....they also opposed intrusion of free blacks.? Limeri ck brings up the point of was the West and America in that case really such a welcoming place? It seems to be that unless you were white and protestant honestly it was not quite so welcoming. The books, America's Frontier Heritage and The Legacy of Conquest, written by Ray Allen Billington and Patricia Nelson Limerick, respectively, each provide extremely compelling and contrasting views of the frontier in the 19th and early 20th century. Despite the obvious and apparent differences on points of view, neither I believe can be credited with a definite ?wrong? or ?right? assessment. I agree and disagree with both on various points but without dispute I believe bring up tremendous points and valid information that everyone can understand

Co-Dominance in Evolution

Co-Dominance in Evolution Co-dominance is a type of non-Mendelian inheritance pattern that finds the traits expressed by the alleles to be equal in the phenotype. There is neither a complete dominance or incomplete dominance of one trait over the other for that given characteristic. Co-dominance would show both alleles equally instead of a blending of the traits as is seen in incomplete dominance. In the case of co-dominance, the heterozygous individual expresses both alleles equally. There is no mixing or blending involved and each is distinct and equally shown in the phenotype of the individual. Neither trait masks the other like in simple or complete dominance, either. Many times, co-dominance is linked with a characteristic that has multiple alleles. That means there is more than just two alleles that code for the trait. Some traits have three possible alleles that may combine and some traits have even more than that. Oftentimes, one of those alleles will be recessive and the other two will be co-dominant. This gives the trait the ability to follow the Mendelian Laws of heredity with simple or complete dominance or, alternatively, to have a situation where co-dominance comes into play. Examples One example of co-dominance in humans is the AB blood type. Red blood cells have antigens on them that are designed to fight off other foreign blood types, which is why only certain types of blood can be used for blood transfusions based on the recipients own blood type. A type blood cells have one kind of antigen, while the B type blood cells have a different type. Normally, these antigens would signal that they are a foreign blood type to the body and would be attacked by the immune system. People with AB blood types have both antigens naturally in their systems, so their immune system will not attack those blood cells. This makes people with the AB blood type universal recipients due to the co-dominance displayed by their AB blood type. The A type does not mask the B type and vice versa. Therefore, both the A antigen and B antigen are equally expressed in a display of co-dominance.

A project namely as Bisham came up by Virgin Media Inc Essay

A project namely as Bisham came up by Virgin Media Inc - Essay Example The paper tells that investment appraisal techniques basically work on the basis of incremental cash flows and not on the basis of net income. Incremental cash flows are the additional cash flows that a firm generates by investing in a particular project, thus the cash flows being generated from that project are added to the projected net income of the firm. However, in order to ensure whether a certain project is viable for the firm or not, the decision lies on the overall net cash flows pertaining to that project. The net cash flows of a particular project can be obtained by subtracting the net income of the company without accepting a project, from the net income of the firm with accepting a project. The basic formula for the incremental cash flows of a particular project is: Net cash flows of the project = Net Income of the company with the project - Net Income of the company without the project The reason behind using incremental cash flow approach in investment appraisal techniques is that it clearly states the actual cash outflows and inflows of a particular project. In case, when a firm has more than one projects and the firm has to decide which project needs to be opted, at that time this incremental approach assists the financial managers of the company, as the overall net income of the company might increase with every project, but the incremental cash flow approach clearly distinct between every project and their viability. As a result, the incremental approach is more useful in appraising different projects. ... These difficulties are as follows: Future projection of cash flows is subject to judgment of the financial analysts which vary with person to person. Inflation rate is subject to unpredictability as local economy as well as global economy may perform either way. The decision of operating cash flows are subject to pure judgment as nobody knows about the cost of direct material, future wage rates and above all the factory overheads estimates during the project life. The tax rate may change due to change in government’s policy. The working capital requirements are subject to pure judgments as to how to estimate them and the assumption regarding their reversal in the last year of the project. Net Cash Flows of Project Bisham under current conditions The following are the net cash flows of the project Bisham for 8 years project life. Yrs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 NCF (1,400,000) 199,700 334,000 317,125 304,469 294,977 287,857 282,518 398,514 In the above table, year 0 indicates the year in which the initial investment is made in the project in the form of purchasing of two machineries naming as Machinery A and B for $1,200,000 and $200,000 respectively. The other figures included in the net cash flows from year 1 to year 8 are derived in such a manner that operating cash flows are computed first. Cost per unit of the product is first calculated by adding up per unit cost of each material, labor and factory overhead. Then these variable costs are deducted from the selling price per unit to obtain the contribution per unit. Contribution per unit for each year is then multiplied by the total number of units to be produced and sold each year to obtain

The Watergate Scandal Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Watergate Scandal - Research Paper Example Nixon effected the American breakthrough with China with his landmark visit. In Moscow, he signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty and an Anti-Ballistic Missile treaty to slow the arms race. The Paris Peace Accord ended American military involvement in Vietnam. â€Å"American President: Richard Nixon (1890-1969).† However, Nixon is now largely remembered as the only President to resign from office. Richard Nixon’s legacy is centered on solely one issue: the Watergate scandal, with its connotations of abuse of power and impropriety. The Watergate Scandal originated in June 1971, as a reaction to the publication of an intensive study of the Vietnam War by Daniel Ellsberg. Fearing that these ‘Pentagon Papers’ would reveal his own political secrets, Nixon established the Special Investigations Group (SIG): nicknamed ‘the plumbers’ because of their mandate to prevent any media leaks about the Nixon administration. In an attempt to discredit Ells berg, G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt of the SIG organized the burglary of the office of Ellsberg’s psychiatrist, to gather damaging evidence. In 1972, the Committee to Re-elect the President (CREEP) allocated funds for Operation Gemstone, a campaign to gather information against Nixon’s political adversaries. ... Nixon won a landslide election victory in November 1972, and began his second term as President. (â€Å"The Watergate Scandal†). At this juncture, the dam of the Watergate Scandal broke, and the deluge washed away his Presidency. The exposure of the Watergate Scandal gained momentum due to the reporting of Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein of the Washington Post. Their informer, called ‘Deep Throat,’ was revealed in 2005 to be the former deputy director of the FBI, W. Mark Felt.  (â€Å"Deep Throat Revealed.†) As Nixon attempted to cover his tracks over past political errors, the axiom that â€Å"the cover-up of the crime can be more damaging than the crime itself† (â€Å"American President: Richard Nixon (1890-1969)†) proved true. It became increasingly clear that the break-in was authorized by top White House officials, campaign funds were diverted for illegal SIG operations, and that the White House attempted to buy the silence of the arres ted men. It was proved that a $25,000 cheque from the campaign fund was paid to Bernard L. Barker and hush money was given to E. Howard Hunt to be distributed by his wife. In January, 1973,  Frank Sturgis,  E. Howard Hunt,  Virgilio Gonzalez,  Eugenio Martinez,  Bernard L. Barker,  G. Gordon Liddy  and  James W. McCord  were convicted of conspiracy, burglary and wiretapping. James W. McCord  wrote to Judge James Sirica alleging that the defendants submitted to political pressure from John Dean, Counsel to the President, and John Mitchell, Director of CREEP, to remain silent and plead guilty. Nixon persisted in maintaining his ignorance of the operations, but his defense began to wear thin. (â€Å"The Watergate Scandal†). As the net began to

MKT5A5 Application coursework Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

MKT5A5 Application coursework - Assignment Example The ‘open skies’ agreement with the US in 2007 and government deregulation in the 90s has seen the two major airline sections alter their strategies to stay in line with these changes (Data Monitor, 2014). There two major sections, one is the major global carriers for instance, British Airways and low budget carriers such as Ryanair. In addition to the 9/11 attack, the volatile economic effects and the rise in oil prices has seen a number of airlines go into liquidation. This essay analyses British Airway’s adverting strategy. British Airlines is the leading airline in the UK and its history can be dated back to 1919, however, the British Airways Group began its operations in 1974 (Data Monitor, 2014). During its years in operation the entity has moved from a government-owned entity to a private firm and has undergone a series of reorganisations making it the second largest airline in Europe and third globally. Currently, the airline has flights in over 300 destinations across the world and has over 33 million passengers (Data Monitor, 2014). It is clear that the airline has been adversely affected by the global economic crisis calling for the need to review their advertising strategy to reach a high number of consumers and manage its brand more effectively. British Airways launched a major campaign in eleven years with a  £20m funding by using its employees to promote the desirable qualities of the airline a few months after solving the controversial cabin crew dispute (Sweeney, 2011). The TV advertisement was displayed on British Airways Facebook page and was first aired in the UK and US markets before it was aired to other global markets. The outdoor campaign and supporting press was included in seven advertisements stressing on the skill and experience of the British Airways staff. One print advertisement was done on a baby jacket to draw attention to the fact that the staff members were trained to deliver babies if need be the

Study On Computer Input And Output Devices

Study On Computer Input And Output Devices The history of ergonomics is start from Greece. The meaning of ergonomics come from Greek words ergon [work] and nomos [natural laws] and first entered the modern lexicon when Wojciech JastrzÄâ„ ¢bowski used the word in his 1857 article Rys ergonomji czyli nauki o pracy, opartej na prawdach poczerpniÄâ„ ¢tych z Nauki Przyrody (The Outline of Ergonomics, i.e. Science of Work, Based on the Truths Taken from the Natural Science). Ergonomics is the science of fitting workplace conditions and job demands to the capabilities of the working population. It can effective and successful to give user adaptation and guarantee for high productivity ,and avoid the illness or injury risk. Even more ,it increase the satisfaction of labor force. To assess the Ergonomics devices can suitable for user it depend on the devices size, shape, and how appropriate it is for the task. Besides that, Ergonomics draws on many disciplines in its study of humans and their environments, including anthropometry, biomechanics, mechanical engineering, industrial engineering, industrial design, kinesiology, physiology and psychology. Ergonomics also include 3 types. Physical ergonomics: Human anatomy, anthropometry, physiology and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity. And how the physical environment around you may affect your performance or understanding of the environment, the impact on people in these areas, especially the harmful effects. Then you can design one that will not damage their environment, they may even enjoy the experience Cognitive ergonomics: concern about mental process like perception, memory, reasoning and motor response , Because they affect interactions among humans and system interaction of other factors. Organizational ergonomics: is trying to organise people and the work to best effect. 3.0 Input devices Input devices is any peripheral equipment (computer hardware chip), data and control signals used to provide an information processing system (such as computer). 3.1 Mouse A mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional movement relative to its supporting surface. Let user to control their personal computer. The first mouse is design by Engelbart in 1963,with the assistance of his colleague Bill English. The first mouse is heavy and big, used two gear-wheels perpendicular to each other: the rotation of each wheel translated into motion along one axis. Before, the ergonomic mouse designed have a old type of mouse named mechanical mice. It use a single ball that could rotate in any direction. But due to the ball touching the other surface ,to make the mouse work, the dust of the surface will stick with ball. After the ergonomic mouse is design, the disadvantage of the mechanical mice will be improve. Ergonomic have many type, such as the mouse using wireless or Bluetooth connect to computer named wireless mouse. So ,this kind of mouse is portable as long as it use inside the range with computer. Besides that, there is a 3D mouse. The method of using this mouse by push, pull, twist or tilt to simultaneously pan, zoom and rotate. So ,this kind of mouse is difference from other mouse. Other than that, there is a mouse is design for gamming ,because this kind of mouse has shortcut key. So, user can use the shortcut key to perform the action inside computer faster. Lastly, design of the sharp for mouse also important in ergonomic mouse. This is because, The sharp of mouse can let user shoulder or the muscle of hand reduce tension and comfortable to grip it. So ,The mouse can reduce the working disease like injury the muscle. 3.2 Keyboard Keyboard, typewriter keyboard, which uses the button or key arrangement, as a lever mechanical or electronic switch. After punch cards, paper tape through fax-type keyboard, interactive computer into the main input device. There is many type of keyboard can use in our life. They are Chorded keyboard ,Software keyboard ,Foldable keyboard ,Laser keyboard ,Optical keyboard technology. Chorded keyboard: Although other associated with a keyboard and keyboard chorded key combination and correlation of each key action, action. Because it use many combination available so can effectively produce more action on a board with fewer keys. Software keyboard: It is a software but display on the screen of the devices. Nowdays ,software keyboard is popular and normally can found inside of the touchscreen phone. Foldable keyboard: Folding (also known as flexible) is made of soft plastic or silicone keyboard can be rolled up or folded travel itself. [2] In use, the keyboard can meet these uneven surfaces, and more resistant to the liquid than the standard keyboard. These can also be connected to portable devices and smart phones. Some models can be completely immersed in water, so that they received in hospitals and laboratories, as they can be disinfected. Laser keyboard: Projection keyboard projects the image of a key, usually with a laser, to a flat surface. The device then use the camera or infrared sensor to monitor, the users finger moves, and will be counted as being pressed, the see the users finger to touch the projected image of the key. Projection keyboard can simulate from a very small projector full-size keyboard. Because the key is only projected images, they can not be considered when pressed. Projected increase in keyboard users often experience discomfort due to lack of their own fingers to when typing. Flat, reflective surfaces do not need to be projected onto the key . most of the projection makes use of the keyboard and PDA, because of its small size. Optical keyboard: This kind of keyboard that can help user neck and shoulders less tension when using it. Or the keyboard can move able ,connect by Bluetooth or wireless to computer. 3.3 Touchpad Touchpad pointing device is a special surface can translate the users finger motion and position in the relative position on the screen composition. They are a common feature of the notebook can also be used as a computer mouse in the desktop space is limited alternatives. Touchpad vary in size , but few make over forty 40 square centimeters (6.3 x 6.3 cm or about 6 inch ²). Touchpad is probably the most common form of tactile sensors. Touchpad is mainly used in a separate laptop, do not need the machine near the surface. Touch pad near the keyboard, only a very short finger movements is the need to move the cursor on the display screen, while beneficial, it also makes it possible for the users thumb moves the mouse cursor when typing accident. Feature is the touchpad on the desktop computer keyboard with the existing built-in touchpad. Touchpad can help reduce the tension of finger ,hand and shoulder. Using it also comfortable. It also consist of mouse function like right and left click ,scroll down or up. 4.0 Output devices Output device is a computer hardware device for communication with any part of the results of data processing information processing system (such as a computer) to the outside world. 4.1 Monitor Monitor is a computer display and related parts packaged in a physical unit that is separate from other parts of the computer. Monitor concern physical ergonomics side is about the height of monitor ,distance Between eye to monitor ,the monitor effect to body and the monitor setting. Normal monitor easy make our neck ,upper back and eye feel tired easily. Ergonomics monitor can help our neck ,upper back and eye reduce the tiredness. this is because ergonomics monitor can change the height ,setting and distance. Monitor distance should located directly in front of the user where the positioned to view monitor. The distance between eye to the monitor screen at less need around 17-20inch away. But if using a small monitor can located it closed a bit. If using a big monitor need to locate little farther away. Monitor setting can change the monitor resolution ,contrast and brightness. As the result, The setting can help user to view the monitor more clearly ,it also help user to reduce eye tiredness. Monitor height is important ,because it can prevent our neck and upper back muscle reduce tension. To determine the correct monitor height ,first sit infront of monitor and then close eyes and make the position of head and body in a neutral and comfortable position ,spine need be straight .After that open eye and note the point where your vision ,that is the correct monitor height. Monitor concern organizational ergonomics side is improve the monitor light weight ,reduce electric comsumption and the speed of display. CRT(cathode ray tube) is the 1st type of monitor. It has high dynamic range ,good colour ,wide gamut and low black level. It can also display natively in any resolution and refresh rate. However, CRT weight is too heavy and big size so now has less people using it. LCD(liquid crystals display) is come after the CRT. LCD is compact ,light weight ,low electric comsumption and no geometric. But ,LCD has a limited viewing angle and slow response times. So ,LCD is suitable for 1 person to view the monitor. Plasma is the lastest design for display. It mostly overcome the problem from CRT and LCD like high speed response ,viewing angle. Plasma same as LCD as compact and light weight ,so it easy to carry. However ,plasma is still facing the input lag problem. 4.2 Earphone Earphones are a pair of small speakers, or less see a speaker, has held close to the users ears, and connection methods, such as audio amplifier, radio or CD player to a method of source Type of earphone The special needs of the listener determines the choice of headphones. Should be noted that the portability of smaller, lighter headset, but it may mean a compromise in Fidelity. Hi-fi headphones as part of a family does not have the same design constraints can be larger and heavier. In general, the shape of the headset can be divided into four different categories: circumaural, supra-aural, earbud, and in-ear. Circumaural: Circumaural headphones (sometimes called full-size headphones) are round or oval-shaped ear pads, which should include the ears. Since these headphones completely surrounded ear, circumaural headphones can be designed completely sealed to prevent the head of any less intrusive external noise. Because of their size, circumaural headphones re, there are some units weighing more than 500 grams. Headband and ear pads requirements designed to reduce the discomfort caused by the weight. Supra-aural: Supra-aural pad sitting on top of the ear headphones, rather than around them. They are usually bundled with personal stereos in the 80s. This type of headphones, generally tend to be smaller and lighter than circumaural headphones, which reduce the external noise attenuation. Earbud: They are a smaller size, directly on the outside of the ear headphones, but it is not completely surrounded. They are generally inexpensive, is its portability and convenience of all ages. Since they can not provide any information they often use high-volume to cover up the environment from the user, thus increasing the risk of hearing loss noise. [2] 90 in the 20th century and 2000s, earbuds became a common type bundled with personal music device isolation. In-ear: Sometime it called as canalphones ,this kind of earphone are inserted directly into ear canal. It similar like earbuds,it portable and act as earplugs to block out environment sound. There are two main types of ear: General and customization. General canalphones provide one or more stock sleeve size (S) to fit various ear canal, which is commonly made of silicone rubber, elastomer, or foam noise isolation. Custom canalphones is installed on everyones ears. Ear tubes used in the manufacture castings made and create a custom casting silicone rubber or elastomer, to provide additional comfort and noise isolation plug. As it involves personal labor, custom ear than in the general ear and very low resale value, because they are less expensive and may be suitable for others. However ,the design of the earphones sharp or the music quality also important. This is because, different user has different needed. Example ,the user need the bass boots earphone so that they can listen the music more bass. In addition, for spot user the earphone can hang at ears and not easy to drop down ,so that user can enjoy the music and no need worry about the earphone drop down. 4.3 Printer Printer is peripheral which produces hard copy (permanent human-readable text and / or graphics) files stored in electronic form, usually paper or transparencies, such as physical print media, documents. Many printer is mainly used for local peripheral devices, and a printer via a cable connection, or in most newer printers, the computers USB cable to connect to it as a file source. Some printers, commonly known as a network printer with a built-in network interface, usually wireless and / or Ethernet-based, and can be used as any user on the network hard-copy devices. The following printing technologies are routinely found in modern printers: Toner-based/Laser printers: This kind of printer rapidly produces high quality text and graphics. As digital copiers and multifunction printers (MFP), laser printer uses electrostatic printing process, but the difference is that the image is made up of a printers photoreceptor cells across the laser beam directly scan analog copiers. Liquid inkjet printers: Inkjet printers operate by propelling variably-sized droplets of liquid or molten material (ink) onto almost any sized page. They are the most common type of computer printer used by consumers. Dye-sublimation printers: A dye sublimation printer (or dye sub printer) is a printer using a thermal transfer printing process using a plastic card, paper or canvas media such as dyes. This process is usually used to lay in a color panel ribbon, once a color. Dye sub printer is mainly used for high-quality color applications, including color photography and text suitable for the disadvantaged. Once the high-end print shops, dye-sublimation printer provincial consumers increasingly are used to dedicated photo printer. Inkless printers: There is two type of inkless printer. They are Thermal printers and UV printers. The work of selective heating thermal printer thermal sensitive paper of special areas. Black and white thermal printer for cash registers, ATM machines, gasoline and some old cheap fax machine. Color can be achieved with special paper, different temperatures and heating rates of different colors. One example is the Zink technology. Xerox is developing a inkless printer will use a special reusable paper, chemicals, UV-sensitive coating of several microns. The printer will use a special UV light bar will be able to write and erase the paper. As of early 2007, the technology is still in development and the printed page can only be maintained between 16-24 hours before fading text. 5.0 Conclusion: In this era ,the devices already improve by the time. So human can enjoy and get more benefit from the new design of devices. So ,ergonomic devices is important that can make our life more good. However ,we must rest around every 30min while using computer ,and also while rest can do some office exercise. This can maintain our body blood flowing.

Arthurian Literature: The Evolution of Merlin Essay -- Literature

Arthurian Literature: The Evolution of Merlin  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   In all the long history of literature, some fictional characters have loomed above others, written about again and again by various authors of various eras. Arthurian literature is one area of fiction that has always been popular for writers to recreate in new versions, and one of the most intriguing characters of all Arthurian literature is Merlin, the magician/ prophet who aids Arthur early in his reign. As the Arthurian saga develops, so does Merlin, changing from an aloof, druidical character into a more human, magical being, though always retaining some traces of his Welsh origins. Merlin gains his first mention in eight ancient Welsh poems attributed to the Welsh bard Myrddin. (Bruce) Signs of his Welsh, druidical heritage are all through the verses. One poem invokes an apple-tree to hide Merlin from his pursuing enemies, and magical apple-trees are common in Welsh fairyland. Another of Merlin's purported poems is addressed to a little pig, and in another he mentions a wolf as one of his few companions. Both of these animals are common devotional cult-objects in Welsh druidism. One poem indicates that Merlin/Myrddin spends a great deal of his time with deer, perhaps even appearing in the form of a stag and living as one. This description is reminiscent of the Welsh stag-god Cernunnos, "The Horned One," who appears as a man with a stag's head and associates with deer. (Tolstoy) In the Welsh poem "Ymddiddan Myrddin a Thaliesin" ("The Dialogue of Merlin and Taliesin"), written down around 1050, we receive our first indication of Merlin's most prominent gift in la ter literature, that of prophecy. The poem ends with the lines "Since I, Myrdin, am next after ... ...ne of the great and enigmatic characters of the Matter of Britain and, for that matter, of all literature.    Works Cited Bruce, Dr. James Douglas. The Evolution of Arthurian Romance. Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1958. Loomis, Roger Sherman. The Arthurian Romance. London: Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., 1963. Loomis, Roger Sherman, ed. Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages: A Collaborative History. Clarendon Press, 1959. Ownbey, E. Sydnor. Merlin and Arthur: A Study of Merlin's Character and Function in the Romances Dealing with the Early Life of Arthur. Vanderbilt University, 1932. Paton, Dr. Lucy Allen. Studies in the Fairy Mythology of Arthurian Romance. New York: Burt Franklin, 1960. Tatlock, J.S.P. The Legendary History of Britain. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1950.       Arthurian Literature: The Evolution of Merlin Essay -- Literature Arthurian Literature: The Evolution of Merlin  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   In all the long history of literature, some fictional characters have loomed above others, written about again and again by various authors of various eras. Arthurian literature is one area of fiction that has always been popular for writers to recreate in new versions, and one of the most intriguing characters of all Arthurian literature is Merlin, the magician/ prophet who aids Arthur early in his reign. As the Arthurian saga develops, so does Merlin, changing from an aloof, druidical character into a more human, magical being, though always retaining some traces of his Welsh origins. Merlin gains his first mention in eight ancient Welsh poems attributed to the Welsh bard Myrddin. (Bruce) Signs of his Welsh, druidical heritage are all through the verses. One poem invokes an apple-tree to hide Merlin from his pursuing enemies, and magical apple-trees are common in Welsh fairyland. Another of Merlin's purported poems is addressed to a little pig, and in another he mentions a wolf as one of his few companions. Both of these animals are common devotional cult-objects in Welsh druidism. One poem indicates that Merlin/Myrddin spends a great deal of his time with deer, perhaps even appearing in the form of a stag and living as one. This description is reminiscent of the Welsh stag-god Cernunnos, "The Horned One," who appears as a man with a stag's head and associates with deer. (Tolstoy) In the Welsh poem "Ymddiddan Myrddin a Thaliesin" ("The Dialogue of Merlin and Taliesin"), written down around 1050, we receive our first indication of Merlin's most prominent gift in la ter literature, that of prophecy. The poem ends with the lines "Since I, Myrdin, am next after ... ...ne of the great and enigmatic characters of the Matter of Britain and, for that matter, of all literature.    Works Cited Bruce, Dr. James Douglas. The Evolution of Arthurian Romance. Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1958. Loomis, Roger Sherman. The Arthurian Romance. London: Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., 1963. Loomis, Roger Sherman, ed. Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages: A Collaborative History. Clarendon Press, 1959. Ownbey, E. Sydnor. Merlin and Arthur: A Study of Merlin's Character and Function in the Romances Dealing with the Early Life of Arthur. Vanderbilt University, 1932. Paton, Dr. Lucy Allen. Studies in the Fairy Mythology of Arthurian Romance. New York: Burt Franklin, 1960. Tatlock, J.S.P. The Legendary History of Britain. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1950.      

How Do Economic Incentives Affect Social Preferences and Behavior Essay

For decades economic theories have relied heavily on the effectiveness of material incentives (Fehr & Gachter, 2001). According to the traditional exchange theory all people are exclusively motivated by their own material self-interest. It predicts that the introduction of a penalty will reduce the occurrence of the behavior that is subject to the fine. On the other hand it states that introducing a material incentive will lead to an increase of the behavior related to the bonus. Based on economic theory, incentives have become increasingly popular and are used to increase certain behaviors in various fields including environmental policy (Andersen & Sprenger, 2000; Barde & Smith, 1997; Baumol & Oates, 1988; Kahn, 1995; all cited in ThOgersen, 2003), household surveys (Singer, 2002) and education policy (Fryer, 2011). On the other side, penalties have been used to reduce free-riding (Feldman, Papadimitriou, Chuang, & Stoica, 2006), and crimes (Akerlof & Dickens, 1982). There is much evidence that supports the basic premise of economics that incentives are effective (Gibbons, 1997; Prendergast, 1999; Lazear, 2000; all cited in Benabou & Tirole, 2004). However, a large body of literature in psychology has shown that explicit incentives lead to decreased motivation and reduced performance in the long run (Deci & Ryan, 1985; as cited in Benabou & Tirole, 2004). Titmuss (1970, as cited in Benabou & Tirole, 2004) was the first who claimed that people might adopt a ‘market mentality’ when they are exposed to explicit economic incentives. He found that paying blood donors for donating blood could actually reduce supply. In the beginning there was little hard evidence that social preferences affected individual behavior, but empirical and theoretical advances over the past decades provide the basis for more support. For example, Gneezy and Rustichini (2000a) found that introducing a monetary fine for late-coming parents in day-care centers led to a significant increase in late-coming. There was no reduction in late-coming after the fine was removed. Also Fryer (2011) didn’t find evidence that providing financial incentives to teachers to increase student performance had any effect. Partly because of these findings, terms as trust, reciprocity, gift exchange and fairness have appeared in the empirical study and modeling of principal-agent relationships (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). This highlights the importance of the influence that social preferences have on incentives. Based on the contradictions mentioned above I conclude that a more thorough analysis is needed in order to understand the influence of incentives on behavior. I’ll focus on the interplay between incentives and social preferences and how this affects behavior. In this paper I will review several mechanisms that can explain how incentives can be less effective than economic theories predict and how they can even have counterproductive effects. Furthermore I will indicate the implications of the (non-)effectiveness of incentives for economic policy. Overview of past research According to the definition of Bowles and Polania-Reyes (2012), social preferences refer to â€Å"motives such as altruism, reciprocity, intrinsic pleasure in helping others, inequity aversion, ethical commitments and other motives that induce people to help others more than would an own-material-payoff maximizing individual† (p. 4). Fehr and Fischbacher (2002) have indicated the most important types of preferences that have been uncovered by the literature. I will shortly review them below. The first important type of social preference is the preference for reciprocal fairness or reciprocity. An individual is reciprocal when he responds kindly to actions that are perceived as kind, and when he responds hostile to actions that are perceived as hostile. Whether some action is perceived as hostile of kind depends on the unfairness or fairness of the intention and on the consequences that are associated with the action. A second social preference type is inequity aversion. According to Fehr and Schmidt (1999; as cited in Fehr & Fischbacher, 2002) â€Å"inequity averse persons want to achieve an equitable distribution of material resources† (p. C3). Inequity averse persons show altruistic behavior if the other persons’ payoffs are below an equitable level. However, if the other persons’ payoffs are exceeding the equitable level an inequity averse person want to decrease the other persons’ payoffs. There are a lot of similarities in the behavior of reciprocal and inequity averse individuals, since both concepts depend in some way on the perception of fairness. Pure altruism is the third type of social preference, which is very different from the former two. Altruism can be seen as an unconditional form of kindness (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2002), as an altruistic person would never take an action that decreases another person’s payoff. The problem with pure altruism is that it cannot explain conditional cooperation, that is, people want to increase their voluntary cooperation in response to cooperation of others. The last social preference type that Fehr and Fischbacher (2002) mentioned is envious or spiteful preferences. An envious or spiteful person always values the payoff of other agents negatively. Therefore the envious person is willing to decrease the other agent’s payoff even if it brings along a personal cost to himself. This happens irrespective of fair or unfair behavior of the other agent and irrespective of the pay-off distribution (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2002). However, spitefulness can’t explain why it is that the same individuals sometimes are willing to help others at a personal cost, while sometimes they harm other people. Over the past decades, many studies have confirmed that a significant fraction of individuals engage in reciprocal or altruistic behaviors (Buraschi & Cornelli, 2002; as cited in Benabou & Tirole, 2004; Fehr & Gachter, 2000). Thus, many individuals do not only care about the material resources allocated to them, but also care about material resources allocated to other relevant agents. To give an overview of the incentive effects on preferences, two distinctions are made: the nature and the causes of incentives (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). Concerning the nature of incentives, people often respond to the mere presence of incentives, rather than to their extent (Gneezy, 2003; as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). However, the extent of an incentive may also play a role. Therefore the effects of incentives on social preferences can be either categorical or marginal or a combination of the two. Bowles and Polania-Reyes (2012) also make a distinction between 2 causes of incentive effects on preferences. First, incentives can affect the environment in which preferences are learned. When this happens, the preferences are referred to as endogenous preferences. Second, the extent or presence of incentives affect the behavioral salience of an individual’s social preferences. When incentives constitute different states, we refer to social preferences as state-dependent preferences. There are three mechanisms that make social preferences state-dependent. First, by implementing an incentive, the principal discloses information about his intentions, about his beliefs about the target of the incentives and about the targeted behavior. This information might affect the agent’s social preferences which in turn affect the agent’s behavior. Second, incentives provide situational cues for appropriate behavior. Finally, incentives may lead to a crowding out of intrinsic motivations. The crowding-out effect is based on the intuition that the presence of punishments or rewards spoils the reputational value of good deeds. This creates doubt within the individual about the extent to which he performed because of the incentives rather than for himself. This phenomenon is also referred to as the ‘overjustification effect’ (Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973; as cited in Benabou & Tirole, 2004). In the next part of this paper I’ll give experimental evidence for both endogenous preferences and for all 3 mechanisms that make preferences incentive-state-dependent. Furthermore, I’ll give examples of experiments where crowding in has been found and explain the underlying mechanisms. 1. Endogenous preferences: incentives alter how new preferences are learned Preferences are endogenous if someone’s experiences lead to durable changes in motivations and eventually result in a change in behavior in certain situations (Bowles, 2008). In most cases, experiments have a few hours duration and therefore it’s unlikely to uncover the mechanisms that are involved in the process of durable change of preferences. Although it’s hard to explore the causal mechanisms at work, there exist some experiments that do show a durable learning effect (Irlenbausch & Sliwka, 2005; Falkinger, Fehr, Gachter, & Winter-Ebmer, 2000; all cited in Bowles, 2008). Gneezy and Rustichini (2000a), for example, examined if the introduction of a monetary fine for late-coming parents in day-care centers would lead to reduction of late-coming. However, the amount of late-coming parents didn’t decrease, but increased significantly. Thus incentives led to more self-interested behavior. More importantly, after the fine was removed no reduction in late-coming parents was shown, meaning that there was some durable learning effect going on. 2. State-dependent preferences: incentives provide information about the principal When an incentive is imposed on an agent, he may infer information about the principal who designed the incentive. He may, for example, infer information about the principal’s beliefs regarding the agent, and about the nature of the task that has to be done (Fehr & Rockenbach, 2003). This information can lead to a negative response to fines that are imposed by principals. Fehr and Rockenbach (2003) designed a sequentially played social dilemma experiment and examined how sanctions intended to prevent cheating affect human altruism. Participants in the role of ‘investor’ could transfer a certain amount of money to another player, the ‘trustee’. The experimenter tripled this amount. After tripling the money, the trustee was given the opportunity to back-transfer some of this money to the investor. The investor could indicate a desired level of the back-transfer before he transferred the money to the trustee. In the incentive-condition the investor even had the option to impose a fine if the trustee would send a back-transfer that was less than the desired amount. Instead of imposing a fine the investor could also choose to decline the use of the fine. The decision of imposing or declining the fine was known to the trustee. In the trust-condition the investor could not make use of incentives. Fehr and Rockenbach (2003) found that generous initial transfers by investors were reciprocated with greater back-transfers by trustees. However, the use of the fine reduced the return transfers, while renouncing the fine in the incentive-condition increased back-transfers. This means that sanctions revealing selfish or greedy intentions destroy altruistic cooperation almost completely (Fehr & Rockenbach, 2003). In another experiment by Fehr and Schmidt (2007), principals could choose between offering a bonus contract or a combination contract (which was a combination of the bonus contract with a fine) to the employee. What they found was that agents perceive that principals who are less fair are more likely to choose a combined contract and are less likely to pay the announced bonus. Furthermore the effect of effort on the bonus paid is twice as large in the pure bonus condition compared to the combined contract condition. The positive response to the principal’s renunciation of the fine option can be seen as a categorical effect. The threat of a fine led to diminishment of the trustee’s reciprocity. 3. State-dependent preferences: incentives may suggest permissible behavior The experiments that will be described here, differ from the experiments mentioned above in the way that here incentives are implemented exogenously by the experimenter. This means that incentives do not provide any information about the beliefs or intentions of other experimental subjects. In a lot of situations people look for clues of appropriate behavior. These are often provided by incentives. These framing effects have been investigated in many studies. Hoffman, McCabe, Shachat and Smith (1994; as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that by making a game sound more competitive after relabeling it, generosity and fair-minded behavior in the participants were diminished. In some other studies (Ellingsen, Johannesson, Munkhammar, & Mollerstrom, 2008; as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012) the framing effect even appeared to have changed subjects’ beliefs about the actions of others. Framing effects can also be induced in other ways than simply renaming the experiment. Providing an incentive may already provide a powerful frame for the decision maker. In an experiment of Schotter, Weiss and Zapater (1996) subjects played an Ultimatum Game experiment in which player 1 is given an endowment and asked to propose a part of this endowment to player 2. Player 2 can either accept or reject this division. If he accepts, the proposed division is implemented. However, if he rejects both players receive nothing. Schotter et al (1996) found that if a market-like competition was included in the game, that is, subjects with lower earnings would be excluded from the second round in the game, player 1 proposed less generous divisions to player 2. Furthermore, lower offers were accepted by player 2. The authors interpreted these results as that implementing market-like competition â€Å"offers justifications for actions that in isolation would be unjustifiable† (p. 38). Thus, providing incentives in the form of a competition can lead to moral disengagement. The framing effects of incentives can occur in cases of government-imposed incentives as well. An example comes from an experiment from Cardenas, Stranlund and Willis (2000) where they studied the effects of external regulatory control of environmental quality. Participants were asked to choose how much time they would spend collecting firewood from a forest, while being aware that this activity has a negative effect on local water quality. Two treatments were considered to examine whether external control may crowd out group-oriented behavior. All subjects played eight initial rounds of the game without any treatment, that is, without being able to communicate with each other and without external regulation. After the initial rounds, one subset of groups played additional rounds in which they were able to communicate. The other subset of groups was confronted with a government-imposed regulation. The regulation also involved the possibility of imposing a fine to subjects that would withdraw too much of the firewood. Although standard economic theory predicted that the regulation would increase group-oriented behavior, this wasn’t the case. When subjects were able to communicate they made way more efficient decisions. However, regulatory external control caused subjects to make decisions that were closer to their self-interest. This means that the fine, although it was insufficient to enforce the social optimum, extinguished the subjects’ ethical aptitudes. 4. State-dependent preferences: incentives may compromise intrinsic motives and self-determination A third reason why social preferences may be state dependent is because providing incentives may lead to motivational crowding out. As Bowles (2008) put it: â€Å"where people derive pleasure from an action per se in the absence of other rewards, the introduction of explicit incentives may ‘overjustify’ the activity and reduce the individual’s sense of autonomy† (p. 607). According to Deci (1975; as cited in Bowles, 2008) the underlying psychological mechanism appears to be a desire for â€Å"feelings of competence and self-determination that are associated with intrinsically motivated behavior† (p. 1607). There is a large body of literature on the psychology of intrinsic motivations going back to the early work of Festinger (1957; as cited in ThOgersen, 2003) and his cognitive dissonance theory. In the past decades a lot of experiments have been done to test the crowding out of intrinsic motivation. One of these studies comes from Gneezy & Rustichini (2000b) who tested the effects of monetary incentives on student performance. 180 students were asked to answer 50 questions of an IQ test. They were all paid 60 NIS (New Israeli Shekel) for their participation in the experiment. The students were divided into 4 different groups, which were all corresponding to 4 different treatments. The students in the first treatment group were only asked to answer as many questions as possible. The students in the second group got an extra payment of 10 cents of a NIS per question that they answered correctly. Subjects in the third group were promised 1 NIS, and subjects in the fourth group 3 NIS per question that they answered correctly. The average number of questions correctly was approximately 28 in the first group and declined to 23 in the second group. Furthermore, the number increased to 34 in both the third and the fourth group. The differences in performance were significant. In a second experiment Gneezy & Rustichini (2000b) tested the effect of incentives on volunteer work performed by high school children. 180 children were divided into three groups. The subjects in the first group constituted the control group and they were only given a speech about the importance of volunteer work. The second group was given a speech as well, but was also promised to receive 1 per cent of the total amount of donations collected. The third group was promised 10 per cent of the amount collected. The average amount collected was highest in the first group and lowest in the second group. The average amount that was collected by the third group was higher than that of the second group but not as high of the amount that was collected in the first group. Also these results were significant. It appears to indicate that the effect of incentives can be detrimental, at least for small amounts. In another experiment, Falk and Kosfeld (2006; as cited in Bowles 2008) tested the idea that control aversion based on the self-determination motive is the reason that incentives reduce performance. They used a principal-agent game where agents could choose a level of production that was beneficial for the principal, but costly for themselves. If the agent chose to produce nothing, he would get a maximal pay-off. Before the agent’s decision the principal could decide to leave the choice f production level completely to the agent or to impose a certain lower bound on the agent’s production level. The experimenter varied the bounds across the treatments and the principal could only choose to impose it or not. Results showed that when the principal imposed the bound, the agents chose a lower production level than when the principal didn’t impose a bound. The ‘untrusting’ principals earned half of the profits of those who did trust the agents and thus didn’t impose a bound. In post-surveys, the agents indicated that imposing the lower bound was perceived as a signal of distrust. The results of this experiment suggest that the desire for self-determination and control aversion are not the only effects of imposing the bound. Imposing this minimum was informative for the agents about what the principals’ beliefs were regarding the agents: the principals who imposed the bounds had lower expectations of the agents. Thus, the results in the experiment of Falk and Kosfeld (2006; as cited in Bowles 2008) seem to be the result of both negative information about the principal (or incentive designer) as well as the result of self-determination. 5. Crowding in Although a lot of experiments show that providing incentives has a negative effect on social preferences, there is also some evidence that crowding in can occur, that is, social preferences and incentives enhance the effect on each other. This might happen when an incentive provides good news about the principal’s type or intentions, for example when he offers the agent a reward rather than a fine. It is also seen in experiments where the incentive designers are peers in a public goods game who pay to punish free riders in order to sustain cooperative behavior (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). The phenomenon of crowding in is interesting since it indicates how policies could be implemented optimally and how incentives and social preferences could become complements rather than substitutes (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). Besides that, it appears that crowding in happens often in Public Goods games and Common Pool Resources games, which display the same characteristics as public policy settings. Below I’ll give an example of an experiment in which crowding in was found. Fehr and Gachter (2000) conducted a public good experiment with and without the opportunity to punish. In the no-punishment treatment the dominant strategy is complete free-riding. In the punishment treatment free-riders could be punished by their altruistic peers, since it was costly for them to punish. Therefore, if there were only selfish individuals, as assumed in economic theory, there wouldn’t be a difference between the two treatments. However, in the no-punishment treatment the contributions of the players were substantially lower than in the punishment treatment. This suggests that powerful motives drive the punishments of free-riders. Furthermore there was evidence that the more free-riders deviated from cooperation, the more they were being punished. There are several mechanisms that can explain the effect of crowding in. In the first place when a peer imposes a fine on a free-rider, this may activate a feeling of shame. Barr (2001; as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that just a verbal message of disapproval already can have a positive effect on the free riders’ contributions. A second mechanism that appears to be at work it that nobody wants to be the cooperator while all others are defecting. Shinada and Yamagishi (2007, as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that students cooperated more in a public goods experiment when they were assured that defecting free-riders would be punished. They just didn’t want to be exploited by defectors. A third mechanism underlying crowding in was consistent with the findings of an experiment by Vertova and Galbiati (2010, as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). They found that when a stated obligation was introduced, this produced a larger effect when it was accompanied with a small monetary incentive, rather than with a big incentive or than when no incentives were offered. The authors interpreted this phenomenon as that the salience of the stated obligation is enhanced by large explicit incentives. The latter phenomenon was also found in Ireland, where a small tax was imposed on plastic grocery bags (Rosenthal, 2008; as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). After two weeks there was a 94% decline in the use of these bags. This result can be explained by the fact that the introduction of the tax was preceded by a large publicity campaign. Thus, the incentive was implemented jointly with a message of social obligation and it seems that it served as a reminder of the importance of one’s civic duty. Implications for policy Many policies are based on the self-interest hypothesis that predicts that all individuals are self-regarding. However, as we have seen social preferences play an important role as well when it comes down to behavior. This would mean that a lot of current policies are non-optimal. Therefore a big challenge is facing the mechanism designer: how to design optimal fines, taxes or subsidies when the individual’s responses depend on his preferences which in turn are determined by the incentive imposed? In most experiments the effects of incentives were studies and afterwards the mechanisms were identified that could explain the results. However, one of the problems that the designer is facing is that he must determine beforehand how incentives will affect behavior. Based on the experiments that have been done, several guidelines can be drawn. The first is that when crowding out is found, social preferences and incentives are substitutes. This means that a negative effect of incentives is less likely to be found when the social preferences are minimal. In contrast, when social preferences are prevalent among a society, it may be more convenient to reduce the use of incentives. Also, policies that are implemented in order to enhance social preferences will be more effective when incentives are little used. The second stems from Titmuss’s claim that if the crowding out effect is so strong that the incentive has an opposite effect than intended, incentives should be used less. However, in many cases the effectiveness of incentives is not reversed, but blunted and then the implications for the optimal use of incentive isn’t that obvious (Bowles & Hwang, 2008). How Bowles & Hwang (2008) state it: â€Å"the reduced effectiveness of the incentive associated with crowding out would entail a larger incentive for a planner designing a subsidy to ensure compliance with a quantitative target† (p. 4). Present evidence is insufficient in providing enough guidelines to the policy maker who wants to know ex ante what the effects are of the incentives that he considers to implement (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). What we do know is that the same incentives imposed by individuals who have no personal benefit but only want to promote pro-social behavior (as in the experiment of Fehr & Gachter, 2000) are more likely to increase contributions than when imposed by an untrusting principal (Fehr & Rockenbach, 2003). Furthermore it seems to be important to let the agent understand that the desired change in behavior would be socially beneficial rather than that the incentive is perceived as a threat to her autonomy or reflecting badly on the designer’s intentions (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). Conclusion The self-interest hypothesis assumes that individuals are only motivated by their own material self-interest. This assumption is used in the design of many policies. However, in the past decades a lot of experiments have shown that other-regarding social preferences rather than self-regarding preferences play a role in behavior. We have seen that some mechanisms can induce pro-socially oriented individuals to behave as they are selfish. On the other hand, there are also examples of experiments in which mechanisms induce self-interested individuals to behave at a more pro-social level. Thus, incentives can lead to both crowding out and crowding in phenomena. Whereas negative information about the principal and the over-justification effect may lead to crowding out of intrinsic motivation to contribute to a good, altruistic punishment by peers who do not benefit personally is more likely to increase contributions. Furthermore it seems important to make individuals aware of their civic duty, as was shown in Ireland where a small tax was imposed on plastic bags. Regarding to public policy, we have seen that small differences in institutional design can lead to many different outcomes. This imposes a big challenge on the policy designer who has to know ex ante what the effects of the incentive that he is considering to implement will be. When social preferences are not present, incentives may have a positive effect, predicted by economic theory. However, in areas where social preferences do play a role, the use of monetary incentives needs to be reconsidered.

Argumentative synthesis on Same Sex Marriage Essays

Argumentative synthesis on Same Sex Marriage Essays Argumentative synthesis on Same Sex Marriage Essay Argumentative synthesis on Same Sex Marriage Essay n. d. Web. 21 Nov. 2013. 16 States with Legal Gay Marriage and 33 States with Same-Sex Marriage Bans Gay Marriage ProCon. org. ProConorg Headlines. N. p. , n. d. Web. 21 Nov. 2013. Gordon A. Babst, Emily R. Gill, and Jason PiercesonMoral Argument, Religion, and Same-Sex Marriage: Advancing tne PuDllc n am MD: Lexington BadgettWhen Gay People Get Married: What Happens When Societies Legalize Same- Sex Marriage, New York: New York University Press, 2009. Sprigg, Peter. Gay Marriage Should Not Be Legal. Gay Marriage. Ed. Debra A. Miller. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2012. At Issue. Rpt. from The Top Ten Harms of Same-Sex Marriage. Family Research Council, 2011. Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 23 Nov. 2013. POLITICO. POLITICO. N. p. , n. d. web. 21 NOV. 2013.. Nicholas Confessore Beyond New York, Gay Marriage Faces Hurdles, New York Times, June 26, 2011. Cristen Conger Does a Parents Gender Impact a Childs Success? , Discovery News, January 28, 2010. http://news. discovery. com. Sara Israelsen-Hartley Traditional Marriage Has Impact Beyond Faith, Deseret News, January 27, 2011. www. deseretnews. com. Chris Johnson 2011 to Bring New Marriage Fights Across U. S. , Washington Blade, Janua ry 13, 2011. www. washingtonblade. com.

The Transition of Russia to Capitalism

The Transition of Russia to Capitalism Russia, in an attempt to end communism and adopt capitalism, engaged herself in a number of reforms after the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR or the Soviet Union). Beginning late 1980s, the new nation started massive economic reforms aimed at relieving the state ownership of the process of production and encouraging private and corporate ownership of the process.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The Transition of Russia to Capitalism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Backed by the west, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, the Russian government, under Boris Yeltsin and his group of young advisors, started the Neo-Liberalism, a transition period that would see the country undergo massive privatization, liberalization and stabilization (Kosals, 2006). Nevertheless, Russia’s economy faced serious problems and failed to achieve the capitalism dream as planned, instead it fa ced rapid decline, increased corruption and reduction in vital state gains (Kosals, 2006). Scholars have identified a number of issues that faced the transition of the Russian economy to capitalism, causing the decline. Scholars state that Russia failed to achieve a dynamic capitalist economy and instead, it achieved a malevolent form of capitalism known as â€Å"crony capitalism† or â€Å"mafia capitalism† (Abdelal, 2001). The cause of the problem is based on the process of expropriation of the state assets initially controlled by the state during the Soviet Union era. A small group of people, probably less than 100, appropriated the state assets during the transition period. They were individuals with strong connection with powerful state officials and integrated into criminal groups or clans. They developed notorious oligarchs with an aim of making money through banking and trade (Guriev Rachinsky, 2005). To achieve this, they took the advantage of the poor legal f ramework developed during the transition period, which allowed them to siphon off enormous profits from the state assets and transfer them to offshore accounts (Guriev Rachinsky, 2005).Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The economic advisors and policy makers behind the transition to capitalism failed to note the need for strong and effective legal frameworks for ensuring a smooth and directed transfer of state assets to private ownership (Abdelal, 2001). Russia failed to have in place effective anti-corruption laws, institutions and the will to deal with the oligarchs. It seems that both the western advisors and Yeltsin’s group of young advisors overlooked the important impact of developing a legal framework to regulate and monitor the transition (Abdelal, 2001). In turn, the oligarchs obtained huge profits through appropriation, especially by deriving gain s the state fuel and metal industries on the world markets. The primary problem was that the oligarchs made almost no investment in the country, leaving the country in a poor state of investment, even in the gas, oil and metallurgical industries that were supporting the economy (Abdelal, 2001). As a result, fuel and mineral production declined and the existing reserves increasing became depleted (Exhibit 1). Poor investment meant that exploitation of new ventures and reserves derailed (Kosals, 2006). Thirdly, the Yeltsin advisors overlooked the need for investing in the infrastructure, communication, transport and agriculture. Instead, much of the investments were in small industries such as services, catering and trade (Exhibit 2). The new capitalist enterprises were often small and unincorporated private companies that were unable to make large profits or pay high wage levels (Exhibit 3). The neoliberalism used in the transition period has also been cited as one of the major facto rs that caused the decline of the economy and failure to achieve a functional capitalism economy. In particular, the Russian government and policy makers applied neo-liberal shock therapy, where there was all shock and no therapy. In particular, price liberalization destroyed Russia’s working capital for its enterprises (Abdelal, 2001). The country also embarked on the liberalization of the administration-command system by dismantling it, but this only deprived investment finance while restrictive financial policies increased the cost of credit and over-valuation of the exchange rate.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The Transition of Russia to Capitalism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Cheap imports were excessive in the Russian market because of the freeing of international trade, while lack of legal regulation of privatization allowed criminals to expropriate the valuable state assets (Abdelal, 2001). Who is to blame for Russia’s failed transition? In fact, a number of forces are to blame for the problems facing Russia’s transition to capitalism and the detrimental consequences on the economy and social system. First, Russia’s history is partly to blame, considering the complexity of the communist system between 1917 and 1989, where the Soviet Union controlled and owned the process of production (Abdelal, 2001). State corporations had been the key to economic development, which achieved its peak during the mid-20th century. In addition, the previous regimes (before the collapse of the USSR) concentrated more on military expenditure, especially during the cold war. The military consumed huge percentages of the nation’s budget, with the state of Russia being the major financier of the budget. The country was deprived of capital for investment as well as social development because the military and foreign affairs were more important to the cold war USSR than other sectors of the economy. Thus, it was necessary to ensure that these forces were controlled and dismantled before privatization. An in-depth analysis of the situation in Russia during the transition may indicate that the Yeltsin government is to blame for its lack of vision and ability to tackle the social and historical problems before embarking on rapid transition process. For instance, the regime failed to implement and institute effective legal frameworks for controlling and regulating the process of privatization (Abdelal, 2001). Had the country embarked on the effective legal system, the oligarchs would have lacked the opportunity to embezzle the country’s finances.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Yeltsin’s advisors, especially the group of young economists and political scientists hired by the presidency to oversee the transition process, failed to note the need for a slow but effective transfer of the economy from state control to private ownership (Abdelal, 2001). They believed in a rapid and haste transition, probably aiming to copy the west, without noting the negative impacts of rapid loss of state control of the transition process. In fact, critics of neo-liberalism have shown the differences between Russia and other formerly socialist/communist nations like China, Uzbekistan and Vietnam. These states embarked on a slow but effective process governed by law and retaining state strong state control of the market system during their transition periods. In addition, countries such as China used restrictive laws to preside over a dynamic transition based on a dynamic growth based on investments in infrastructure, manufacturing, education, health, mining, technology and processing industries (Exhibit 4). Thus, Russia’s inability to take such steps failed the transition process, eventually destroying the once vibrant economy. Moreover, Yeltsin’s lack of involvement of all the state organs such as the legislature and the continued allocation of huge sums of money to the military after the collapse of the Soviet Union contributed to the failures in the economic transition process. For example, Yeltsin’s government sought to structure the government while also undertaking the rapid transition system (Kosals, 2006). Politics inferred with the economic reforms during the period, especially after Yeltsin announced rapid reforms in the legislature, including a snap parliamentary election after dissolving the legislature. There massive protests as most parliamentarians objected the move and refused to leave the parliament buildings, but Yeltsin used the military to remove them. After these events, the political will to oversee a smo oth and effective transition failed greatly because the presidency was not willing to involve the legislature, which made it difficult to enact and implement effective laws to reduce the impact of the oligarchs (Kosals, 2006). The government further failed to impose hard budget constraints on several traditional enterprises while also failing to provide both direct and indirect credits as well as subsidies to the companies facing collapse. Years after the collapse of the communist union, the state bodies, especially at the local and regional levels, have continued to place bureaucratic limitations permitting such issues as private land ownership and agreements for shared resource exploitation (Kosals, 2006). Moreover, the government is yet to show significance commitment to encourage the establishment of the rule of law in order to secure property rights, trade contracts and reduce the degree of corruption. What should be done? To reverse the effects of the shock therapy and the fai led transition, Russia should embark on a new system governed by the rule of law. First, it must enact and implement strong and effective anti-corruption laws in order to secure the economy from distractors such as economic cartels that own the production process. Such laws should be used to control the private ownership of corporations and control of major economic sectors. Secondly, laws should be put in place to ensure investment in importance economic sectors such as banking, oil, metallurgic, communication, transport mining and processing industry. Infrastructure development must be given priority in the national budget in order to encourage large-scale investments while also cutting the amounts of resources spent on military expenditure (Kosals, 2006). In addition, the government must reduce the reliance on traditional enterprises and encourage foreign direct investment while also reducing the entry of cheap products from foreign markets in order to save the local industries f rom excessive losses. Bailing out of the loss-making corporations should further be enhanced in order to prevent economic crisis. Appendix Figure 1: Key economic indicators in the transition-era Russia Figure 2: The collapsing rate of investment during the transition period Figure 3: The increasing rate of unemployment during the transition era Figure 4: Russia’s GDP trend during the transition References Abdelal, R. E. (2001). Russia: The end of a time of troubles? Harvard, MA: Harvard Business School. Burawoy, M. (2002). Transition without transformation: Russia’s involutionary road to capitalism. Locating Capitalism in Time and Space: Global Restructurings, Politics and Identity, 269-90. Guriev, S., Rachinsky, A. (2005). The role of oligarchs in Russian capitalism. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(1), 131-150. Kosals, L. (2006). Interim outcome of the Russian transition: clan capitalism. Kyoto Institute of Economic Research Working Paper, 610.

Team DISC Assessment Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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The Grade I Deserve In This Course Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Grade I Deserve In This Course - Essay Example Oftentimes I recognize that fellow students participate in classroom lectures and complete their homework not out of a genuine intellectual interest, but out of a desire to merely achieve a high grade. While I commend their standards and commitment to success I believe such an approach is not effective in gaining the greatest benefit from the course. During this course I have made my greatest effort to digest and appreciate the course material in a way wherein I would truly understand its deeper meaning and implication, both for the content as well as for improving my English writing skills. It follows that while others may appear to have outwardly been more involved in the course, I believe that my commitment and intellectual involvement are very high in terms of my own abilities, as well as relative to other students in the course. In examining the extent that I accomplished the goals of this course I believe I was highly successful. In these regards, I greatly improved my writing and linguistic abilities. I recognize my improvement in the increased ease I feel writing documents that in the past would have taken me a significant amount more time. Another element of my improved understanding is that I have increased my critical thinking skills. I believe that one of the central challenges of the course was approaching difficult or dense material and gaining a deeper understanding of this material’s central arguments. In the process of engaging with this challenging material I found that I began to develop increased strategies for tackling things that previously I would have simply ignored. I believe that these increased critical thinking skills, as evidenced both in my improved English writing and comprehension abilities, are perhaps the greatest things I gained from the course. Taking the cumulative impact of the previously articulated examples,